Month: April 2022

Winds are natural phenomena which occurs in different forms.

Different names can be heard for winds .Which are Hurricane, Cyclone, Typhoon etc.

These names mainly called based on the location.

Hurricane – Which is in North America and Caribbean.

Cyclone -is in Indian Ocean.

Typhoon- in Southeast Asia.

and Typhoons are called Willy Willies in Australia.

• Cyclones

Cyclone occur much more often.

But few of them grow large and strong enough to become hurricanes or typhoons.

A tropical cyclone is a huge mass of clouds that gather in the sky and start rotating counter clock-wise due to very low air pressure.

The weekest version of a tropical cyclone is called a tropical depression.

It’s a similar swirling mass of clouds, usually accompanied by storms, but the force of winds in it is not very high.

When the winds are stronger than 39MPh, the cyclone is then called a tropical storm.

This is a more serious threat, because gust of wind might reach 72Mph.

And only if the wind gets even more powerful than that, then it can be called a hurricane or a typhoon.

If a severe tropical cyclone with wind Speed of over 75 mph occurs in the North Atlantic or North-East , its called hurricane.

If its in the North-West Pacific, then it’s a typhoon.

• Typhoons

The biggest storm ever was Super Typhoon hit near micronesia in western pacific. Which is of 2200 Km wide and 305 Km/hr wind.

The causes of Typhoons are – >>>Pre existing weather disturbances>>> warm tropical oceans >>>> moisture >>>> relatively light winds.

We hear more about hurricane than typhoons because the Atlantic Ocean is warmer than the Pacific, and warm water acts like a fuel for cyclone.

• Hurricanes

Large and swirling storms . Produce winds of 119 Km per hour ( 74 mph ) or higher.

They form over warm ocean water . 

Parts of Hurricanes   :   

Eye : The eye of the ‘hole’ of the centre of the storm . Winds are light in this area . Skies are parly cloudy and sometimes even waters.

Eyewall : The eyewall is a ring of thunderstorms . Theses storms swirl around the eye .

The wall is where winds are strongest and rain is heaviest.

Rain Bands : Bands of clouds and rain go far out from a hurricane’s eye wall .

These bands streatch fair hundreds of Miles . They contain thunderstorms and sometimes tornadoes.

Hurricane got the name from the God Huracan , the Mayan God of wind, storm and fire.

There are 5 categories of hurricanes according to the National Weather Service.

Category 1 is just slightly more intense than a tropical storm, and in some countries its still considered as such.

Category 2 is another story altogether. The wind blows at speed of up to 109 mph , and that’s where the real trouble starts.

When a hurricane grows to category 3 , its already a disaster.

First of all , it’s big . Secondly it’s powerful . The winds are reaching 129 mph , and catching such a gust is like being hit with a race car .

A category 4 major hurricane is something you don’t want to see with your own eyes .

With gusts of wind up to 157 mph , it can tear trees from the ground and hurl fairly large objects in the air , causing lots of damage .

And finally , a category 5 major hurricane is a thing to be avoided at all costs.

In other classifications it’s even called a super typhoon or a super cyclonic storm.

• Tornado

A Tornado is a Swirling funnel of air coming down from the sky. It appears during thunderstorms, and it’s rather a consequence than a reason for severe weather.

But despite its horrible power, a tornado is a very local event, and short-lived at that. The biggest one ever registered by scientists was just over 1.5 mi in diameter and lasted about an hour or so.

The centre, in its turn, is usually calm and windless – so calm, in fact , that its almost creepy.

It’s called the eye of the Tornado or the hurricane, and its the safest place to be when phenomenon comes to you.

• Biggest Cyclone Outbreaks in history are here mentioned below.

Hurricane Camille : 1969 August 14-22- United States.

Hurricane Mitch (1998) – October 22-November 9.- Central America.

Typhoon Nina (1975) – July 30 – August 6-China.

The Dust Bowl – 1930 s- USA and Canada.

Hurricane Katrina – ( 2005 ) August 23- 31 – Gulf Coasts of United States.

Bhola Cyclone – 1970 November 3 – 13 – India and East Pakistan

Iran Blizzard – ( 1972 ) February 3-9 – Iran

Tri-State Tornado – 1925 March 18 – Mid Western and South Western United States.

The great Galveston Hurricane – 1900 ( August 27 – September 17 ) – Galveston – Texas – USA.

Hurricane Mathew ( 2016 ) ( Sep 28 – Oct 10 ) – USA and Canada.

Cyclone Nagris ( 2005 ) April 27 – May 23 ) – Bangladesh, Myanmar, India, Srilanka.

Hurricane Sandy ( 2012 ) ( October 22 – November 2 ) – United States and Canada

The Coriolis Effect : In combination with an area of high preassure, causes the prevailing winds – the trade winds to move from east to west on both sides of the equator across this 60-degree “belt” .

The sinking air triggers the eastern trade winds and little precipitation , completing the cycle .

Doldrums is the popular nautical term that refers to the belt near the equator.

At equator where sailing ships sometimes get stuck on windless waters. Because the air circulates in an upward direction , there is often little surface wind in the ITCZ .

Westerlies :Westerlies are the Permanent winds that blow in the middle latitudes. They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards sub-polar low-pressure belts.

The westerlies of the Southern hemisphere are more robust and constant than the westerlies of the Northern hemisphere.

Roaring Fourties : are strong westerly winds found in the Southern Hemisphere , generally between the latitude of 40 and 50 degrees .

The strong west-to-east air currents are caused by the combination of air being displaced from the equator towards the south pole , the earth’s rotation and the scarcity of landmasses to severe windbreaks.

Westerlies in southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent than in northern hemisphere .

Because Coriolis Force is higher in southern hemisphere as compared to Northern Hemisphere.

Clouds are mainly Cirrus, Cumulus, Nimbus and Stratus.

Cirrus :

Formed of high altitude 8000-12000 KM . Almost height upto the peak of Mount Everest . they’re thin . appear as if feather . cold . Composed of Ice Crystals /droplets.

Cumulus :

4000-7000 Km. Like plant fiber . appear as if Colley flower . May or might not produce rain. If join together chances to rain is heigh . Bigger than Cirrus clouds .

Nimbus :

Black and dark gray middle levels . Very nearer to surface of earth . Extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun . Sometimes the clouds so low that they appear to the touch the bottom . Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour .

Stratus :

Horizontal layer of clouds . but 2Km. Like dust and fog . don’t allow sunlight to pass . If it’s there the sky look darker .

Cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights because, the  clouds act as a shield and as an insulator and store up the warmth radiated by the planet and don’t permit heat to flee. Clouds act as a blanket, keeping more warmth ( radiation) near the surface of the earth.

Clouds can be classified mainly as shown below. ( High Clouds, Middle Clouds, Low Clouds )

High Clouds( Above 7000m)

Cirrus ( Ci) :

Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate filaments, or white or mostly white patches or narrow bands. These clouds have a fibrous (hair-like) appearance or a silky sheen or both.

Cirrocumulus (Cc) :

These are thin, white patch ,sheet, or layer of clouds without shading composed of very small elements in the form of grains, etc., merged or separate , and more or less regularly arranged ; most of the elements have an apparent width or less than 1 degree – approximately the width of the little finger at arms length.

Cirrostratus (Cs) :

Transparent, whitish cloud veil of fibrous or smooth appearance, totally or partially covering the sky or mackerel sky , and generally producing halo phenomena.

Middle Clouds ( 2000-7000m)

Atocumulus

White or gray, or both white and gray, patch, sheet, or layer of clouds, generally with shading, composed of rounded masses, rolls, etc., sometimes partly fibrous or diffuse, and may or may not be merged; most of the regularly arranged small elements usually have an apparent width of between 1 degree and 5 degree- approximately the width of three fingers at arms length.

Altostratus

Grayish or bluish cloud sheet or layer of straited, fibrous, or uniform appearance, totally or partly covering the sky, and having parts thin enough to reveal the Sun at least vaguely, as through ground glass. The Sun is dimly visible, the altostratus clouds, however, do not show halo phenomena.

Low Clouds( Below 2000 m )

Nimbostratus(Ns)

Gray cloud layer, often dark, the appearance of which is rendered diffuse by more or less continually falling rain or snow , which in most cases reaches the ground. It is thick enough throughout to bolt out the Sun. Low ragged clouds frequently occur below the layer with which they may or may not merge.

Stratocumulus(Sc)

Gray or whitish , or both gray and whitish , patch-sheet or layer of clouds that almost always has dark parts, composed of tessellations, rounded masses, rolls, etc., that are non-fibrous (except for virga) and may or may not be merged.

Stratus(St)

Generally gray cloud layer with a fairly uniform base, which may give drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains. When the Sun is visible through the cloud, its outline is clearly discernible. Stratus does not produce halo phenomena(except possibly at very low temperatures ). Sometimes stratus appears in the form of ragged patches.

Cumulus

Detached clouds , generally dense and with sharp outlines, developing vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes, or towers , of which the bulging upper part often resembles a cauliflower. The sunlit part of these clouds are mostly brilliant white; their bases are relatively dark and nearly horizontal. Sometimes cumulus is ragged.

Cumulonimbus

Heavy and dense clouds, with considerable vertical extent, in the form of a mountain huge towers. At least part of its upper portion is usually smooth, or fibrous of striated, and nearly always flattened; this parts often spreads out in the shape of an anvil or plume. Under the base of this cloud, which is often very dark, there frequently low ragged clouds either merged with it or not. The cumulonimbus clouds give torrential rainfall. Lightning and thunder are also the common features of these clouds.

• Cloud Seeding :

Cloud seeding could be a weather modification technique that improves a cloud’s ability to provide rain or snow by artificially adding condensation nuclei to the atmosphere, providing a base for snowflakes or raindrops to make.

After cloud seeding takes place, precipitation falls from the clouds back to the surface of the planet.This we refer as Artificial rain.

• Rain Forests:

Rain forests experiences annual rainfall amounts of just about 400 inches. quite half world species and animals found in rainforests .

Rainforests can classified mainly as tropical rain forests and temperate rain forests which is in step with tropical and temperate region of earth.

Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree Canopy, Moisture – dependent vegetation , the presence of epiphytes and lianas and therefore the absence of wildfire.

The Celestial objects which are objects in our sky, are of different types. Planets in Solar system, Moon, different types of stars and clusters, Asteroids, Comets all are contained in this list. Some of which and its details are mentioned here.

When we look at a celestial object we are looking at how it appeared that long ago in the past.

Milky way galaxy is a big place, even at this blazing speed, it takes the sun approximately 225-250 million years to complete one journey around the galaxy’s center. That amount of time – “the time takes us to orbit the center of galaxy” – is called a Cosmic year.

•  Asteroids.

The Asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the solar system, located roughly between the orbits of the planets Jupitor and Mars, that is occupied by a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies, of many sizes but much smaller than planets, called asteroids or minor planets.

These are rocky worlds revolving around the sun which are too small to be called as planets . Made up of Metals and rocks and consists of organic compounds . Which have shorter and elliptical orbits. Can found millions of asteroids that measures hundreds of kilometers across. Some as small as dust particles . Mass less than that of Moon.

Most of the asteroids are small but some have diameter as large as 100 Km. Which are revolving around the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

• Comets.

Comets also orbit the sun and are relatively small bodies of solar systems. When Comets approach the sun , some of their ice particles melt the other materials vapourises due to the heat of the Sun . This results in a glowing halo that extends outwards as though sailing through the space. The ice and compounds like ammonia and methane develop a fuzzy cloud-like shell known as Coma. This forms a notable difference between comets and asteroids . 

• Meteors.

A meteor is a streak of light in the sky. A meteor, sometimes called a shooting star or falling star, is actually a space rock that is crashing through Earth’s atmosphere. A meteor is a streak of light in the sky caused by a meteoroid crashing through Earth’s atmosphere.

• Halley’s Comet.

Halley’s Comet is arguably the most famous comet. It is a periodic comet and return to Earth’s vicinity about 75 years, making it possible for a human to see it twice in his or her lifetime. The last time it was here in 1986 , and it is projected to return in 2061.

Halley’s orbital period has varied between 74-79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the sun is highly elliptical with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967( with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory) The perihelion, the point in the comet’s orbit when it is nearest the sun, is just 0.6 AU.

Blackholes.

Black hole is a region of space from which nothing, not even light, can escape. It is the result of the deformation of Space time caused by a very compact mass.

The simplest black hole has mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum. The mass of the blackhole is finite. But has very high density, the reason why a blackhole has infinite density is that its mass is concentrated into a space of zero-volume.

Chandrasekhar determined what is known as the Chandrasekhar limit-that is a star having a mass more than 1.44 times that of the sun does not form a White dwarf but instead continues to collapse , blows off its gaseous envolope in a supernova explosion, and becomes a neutron star.

Recently Scientists observed the merge of giant “black holes” billions of light years away from the earth. The blackhole is supposed to be located in Abel 2261, an enormous galaxy cluster that is about 2.7 billion light years away from our planet. At 2.7 billion light years away, the Abel Galaxy is at an overwhelmingly large distance away from us.

• Planets

The order of the planets in the solar system, starting nearest the sun and working outwards is the following : Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and then the possible planet Nine.

Planets have an apparent motion but does not twinkle. Planets do not twinkle because 

1) Planets are not a source of light instead they reflect low intensity light reaching them.

2)They are also closer to the earth than the distant stars. Hence the shift is not enough for the planets to twinkle.

Because of the lack of an atmosphere in moon ,  sunlight omited is scattered. So whether its daytime or night time on the moon, the sky appears black.  

• Earth

When the earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the earth.

The early atmosphere largely contained water vapor, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very little of free oxygen. The process through which the gases were outpoured from the interior is called degassing. Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapor and gases.

The energy from earth, Geothermal energy is the heat received from the earth’s core, this heat continuously flows outwards. It transfers to the surrounding layers of the rock, the mantle. When temperature and pressure becomes very high some mantle rocks melt becoming magma.

From electromagnetic radiation to revolution of the earth everything is responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth and that changes made the earth as of the form that we live now.

Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree Canopy, Moisture – dependent vegetation , the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire.

More than half of world species and animals found in rainforests.

These rainforests are rightly called the ” jewels of the earth ” and the ” World’s largest pharmacy “.

Primarily there are two types of rainforests.1.Tropical Rainforests.2.Temperate Rainforests.

Tropical Rainforests :

Tropical rainforests also called tropical Evergreen –are located near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer at the North and Tropic of Capricorn in the South of the equator and close to the tropics.

These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. are warm and humid and temperature ranges from 21 to 30 degree Celsius ( 70 to 85F ).

The average annual temperature of tropical rain forests is above 20C .

The Tropical rain forests receive annual precipitation amount of 60 to 160 inches ( 152 to 406 CM ) . Some rain forests in the world experiences annual rainfall amounts of almost 400 inches.

These rainforests are rightly called the ” jewels of the earth ” and the ” World’s largest pharmacy “.

As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason they are called evergreen.

Multiple storey of broad leafed evergreen tree species are in abundance. The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the forest even in the day time.

Most nutrients that are absorbed into the soil are leached out by the abundant rainfall, which leaves the soil infertile and acidic.

Animals like Jaguar, Lemur, Leopard etc are found.The trees growing in tropical Evergreen are hardwood trees Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany.

Amazon forests in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the Lungs of the Earth. Anacondas, one of the World’s largest snakes is found in the tropical rainforests.

Temperate Rainforests :

Temperate Rainforests : Temperate rainforests account for around one-quarter of the World’s forest in a temperate region.

These rainforests spread much further north and south than their tropical counterpart.

They exist in North America, Europe, South America and also in Australia and New Zealand.

A plant community , which has grown naturally without human aid refered as Natural Vegetation. It includes:

Forests,Grasslands,Shrubs and bushes

• Tropical deciduous forests :

Tropical desiduous are the mansoon forests found in the large part of India, Northern Australia, Central America.These regions experience seasonal changes.Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.

• Temperate deciduous forests:

Decidous means to fall off, or shed seasonally. Just as the name implies, these decidous trees shed their leaves each fall.

Lying on the forest floor, the leaves decay. As the leaves decomposes, the nutrients contained in the leaves are absorbed by the soil. For this reason, the soils of their biome tend to be very fertile.

They are found in areas with warm, moist summers and mild winters.The three major areas of these forest type occur in the Northern hemisphere.

Mainly in North America, East Asia and Europe. Smaller areas occur in Australia and Southern South America.

Examples of tropical trees in the Northern hemisphere’s deciduous forests include Oak, Maple, beech and elm.

Birds like broad winged Hawks, Cardinals, Snowy Owls and Wood peckers are also found in this biome.

Mammals include white-tailed deer, raccoons, oppossums, porcupines and red foxes found.

Animals that live in the temperate decidous forests must be able to adapt to the changing seasons.

• Rain forests (Tropical evergreen & Temperate evergreen ):

Tropical Rainforests(Tropical Evergreen):

Tropical rainforests also called tropical Evergreen –are located near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer at the north and Tropic of Capricon in the South of the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and recieve heavy rainfall throughout the year.

are warm and humid and temperature ranges from 21 to 30 degree Celsius ( 70 to 85F ).The average annual temperature of tropical rain forests is above 20C .

The Tropical rain forests receive annual precipitation amount of 60 to 160 inches ( 152 to 406 CM ) . Some rain forests in the world experiences annual rainfall amounts of almost 400 inches.

More than half of world species and animals found in rainforests .

These rainforests are rightly called the ” jewels of the earth ” and the ” World’s largest pharmacy “.

As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason they are called evergreen.

Multiple storey of broad leafed evergreen tree species are in abundance. The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the forest even in the day time.

Most nutrients that are absorbed into the soil are leached out by the abundant rainfall, which leaves the soil infertile and acidic.

Animals like Jaguar, Lemur, Leopard etc are found.The trees growing in tropical Evergreen are hardwood trees Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany.

Amazon forests in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the Lungs of the Earth. Anacondas, one of the World’s largest snakes is found in the tropical rainforests.

Temperate Rainforests (Temperate Evergreen):

Temperate rainforests account for around one-quarter of the World’s forest in a temperate region.

These rainforests spread much further north and south than their tropical counterpart.

They exist in North America, Europe, South America and also in Australia and New Zealand.

• Mediterranean Vegetation :

This type of vegetation occur between 30 and 40 degrees northern and southern latitudes on the westward sides of continents and include five regions. These are the Mediterranean, south central and southwestern Australia, the fynbos of southern Africa, the Chilean Matorral, and the Mediterranean ecoregions of California with scrubland vegetation (chaparral).

The Mediterranean forests have lost much of their natural condition as a result of excessive logging, fire, and overgrazing by livestock, especially goats. Forests are especially threatened at the boundaries of their natural distribution, such as the forest–steppe regions of southern Ukraine and Russia or in the Mediterranean Basin.

Most of the Central Europe’s alluvial forests along all major river courses have virtually disappeared. Airborne pollution (mostly in the form of acid deposition and photochemical smog) is also a major cause of damage to forest ecosystems in Europe, particularly in Central and eastern Europe. First reported in the Black and Bavarian forests of Germany in the early 1970s, damage from air pollution may now be detected in a quarter of all European trees.

Although boreal and Mediterranean forestsare different in many ways, management and restoration strategies in both regions have begun to focus on ecological heterogeneity as a way to increase ecosystem resilience and sustain native biodiversity.

For terrestrial ecosystems, the most basic form of heterogeneity is in the soil. Soils are naturally variable at all spatial scales, from soil micro-structure to the landscape. This variability plays a major role in driving habitat diversity, from the soil biota, to vegetation structure and composition at local and regional scales, to landscape-scale patterns.

• Coniferous Forests :

Coniferous forest regions have cold, long, snowy winters, and warm, humid summers; well-defined seasons, at least four to six frost-free months. Example: Lahti, Finland.

The coniferous forest is sandwiched in between the tundra to the north and the deciduous forest to the south. One type of coniferous forest, the northern boreal forest, is found in 50° to 60°N latitudes. Another type, temperate coniferous forests, grows in lower latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia, in the high elevations of mountains. Coniferous forests consist mostly of conifers, which are trees that grow needles instead of leaves and cones instead of flowers. Conifers tend to be evergreen—they bear needles all year long. These adaptations help conifers survive in areas that are very cold or dry. Some of the more common conifers are spruces, pines, and firs.

Annual rainfall in coniferous forests varies from 300 to 900 mm annually, with some temperate coniferous forests receiving up to 2,000 mm/ year (79 in/year). The amount of precipitation depends on the forest location. In the northern boreal forests, the winters are long, cold and dry, while the short summers are moderately warm and moist. In the lower latitudes, precipitation is more evenly distributed throughout the year.

Temperate Coniferous forests cover the highest percentage of forest literacy rate in the world. Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest.

• Tundra :

A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.Devoid of tree except standard shrub in the southern part of Tundra biome.Grand flora like litchen, mosses and sedges.

Animals like reindeer, arctic fox, polar bear, snowy owk, arctic hare.Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.Extremely cold climate, low biotic diversity.Limitation of drainage.

Short season of growth and reproduction.Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic material.Tropical rain forests.

• Taiga :

The Swampy coniferous forest of high northern latitudes, especially that between the tundra and steppes of Siberia.Northern Europe, Asia and North America, moderate temperature than tundra also known as boreal forest.

The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen mostly spruce with some pine and firs.The fauna consists of small seed eating birds, hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little minks, elks, puma, siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.

• Savannah :

Tropical region savannah is most extensive in Africa.Grasses with scattered tree and five resisting throny shrub. The tropical Savannah is a biome characterized by tall grasses and occassional trees.

The fauna include a great diversity of grazzers and browers such as antelope, buffalo, Zebra, elephant, lions, cheetah. Savannas can result from either climate, soil conditions, animal behaviour or agricultural practices, which limit the occurances of trees.

Humans create Savannah by burning the grasslands and felling the trees in order to plant crops. Large animals such as elephants can turn a forest into a Savannah by stripping the bark from the trees , knocking over trees and tramping on tree seedlings.

• Grassland :

North America, Ukraine, have temperate conditions with rather low rainfall.Grasses dominated the vegetation, fauna like cattle, rodent, wolves and rich and diverse array of ground nesting birds.

• Desert :

Very low rainfall, days are hot but nights are cold.The flora is drought resistance vegetation such as cactus, sagebrush, fauna reptiles, birds, mammals etc.